The purpose of religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The reason for religion - Essay Example Religion has been the most fascinating, dubious and persuasive factor in lives of people for quite a long time. Since the start of human advancement a huge number of years back, religion has inundated the existence circles of occupants of this world by and large. Researchers, masterminds, logicians, and scholars have contributed their time and exertion widely to examine the effect of religion on people’s lives. In any event, when the job religion played in lives of its adherents was not an observationally demonstrated one; it was obvious through thoughtfulness of thousands of individuals who considered a to be in their lives as they practice their confidence. This paper endeavors to investigate this transformative force, religion holds and the reason it serves in various settings in lives of individuals. What's more, the paper will likewise endeavor to take a gander at the modernization and investigate the distinction, appearance of science and innovation has made in the capac ity, religion served in the lives of its adherents. Initially, when man started to wander into the secrets of the universe and set out upon the everlasting scholarly excursion, he utilized religion as an approach to investigate the universe and tackle the riddles every wonder advertised. In this manner, legends appeared and individuals began adoring items since they thought it was these articles, which administered the universe and ran their lives. This doesn't just incorporate articles like fire and water yet creatures like the ones who were more remarkable than them and their pets. As the world advanced, individuals became smarter and understood the presence of a higher power, which administered the lives of articles, and elements, which they prior saw to be simply the celestial power. Along these lines, the appearance of the idea of religion occurred. Be that as it may, as the world propelled, the job of religion turned out to be more died down as individuals investigated compara ble gains in different assets like innovation and consultancy, the two of which gives comfort and a space to purification with machine and human separately. What is hazardous to decide is in this way not what religion planned to accomplish, yet whether religion is as yet required to empower life to work regularly or whether it is an outdated substance whose whole presence is only a bogus fulfillment and declaration to different occasions that stand unexplained in the domain of history. To take a gander at it fundamentally, religion really doesn't offer a lot of help with regards to genuine issues, in any event not any longer. The reasons it served in old occasions are currently achieved in its nonattendance with a similar quality in any case. For example, religion in more seasoned occasions was utilized as clarification for some, life procedures and all inclusive happening, which were without any clarification understandable to human brain. Be that as it may, with the logical headwa y and new revelations flooding the universe of data consistently, science appears to have overwhelmed this job and religion shows up died down by its a lot more youthful adversary. Instances of this will be evolutionism offered by Charles Darwin and Big Bang hypothesis, which both offer non-divine-yet-intelligent clarification for the production of universe. In bygone eras, religion additionally filled a mental need. It helped individuals alleviate pressure, dispose of their common weights, and present their concerns to the force, which appeared to retain all that is terrible and shield individuals from all sufferings. All issues that appeared to be out of their control and hover of shrewdness were left to the unbelievable and ceaseless intensity of godliness. Likewise, customs were intended to mollify and gratiate this super force for his boundless bounties and at whatever point sins or slip-ups were submitted, satisfaction rituals and penances were performed to make it up to him. Consequently, religion was simply not confined to customs and love, however it immersed the entire way of life and included all parts of presence of a person. Be that as it may, science has figured out how to eclipse effectively the effect of religion on people’

Hannibal Barca :: essays research papers

Hannibal Barca was conceived in 247 B.C. in the city of Carthage, which was situated in current Tunis, or the northern tip of Africa. His dad, Hamilcar Barca, was an extraordinary Carthaginian general of the military who battled in the First Punic War among Rome and Carthage, which the last lost. At a youthful age, Hamilcar made Hannibal guarantee â€Å"eternal scorn towards Rome† (Lendering, 1). At around age nine, Hannibal went with his dad on a campaign to increase a hold in Spain. During this time was when Hannibal likely increased a large portion of his military information that helped him incredibly further down the road. When Hannibal’s father and more seasoned sibling kicked the bucket in 229 and 226, Hannibal was chosen president of the Carthaginian armed force. Around ten years after the fact, Hannibal, following up on his guarantee to his dad, assaulted the city of Sagantum in Spain, which was constrained by the Romans. This assault prompted the beginning of the Second Punic War among Carthage and Rome.      Even before the war began, Hannibal realized what he would do. Since Carthage had no naval force, there was no expectation of going legitimately from Carthage to Italy over the Mediterranean Sea. Hannibal concocted a risky however sharp arrangement. So as to get to Italy over land, Hannibal and his military would need to go from Carthage-controlled Spain over the Alps and into the core of the adversary. Hannibal left vulnerable winter of 218 B.C. with 50,000 infantry, 9,000 rangers, and 37 war elephants. While crossing the Alps, â€Å"Hannibal’s power experienced incredibly the components and the antagonistic vibe of the nearby tribesmen† (Beshara, 3). When they arrived at Italy, after just fourteen days, more than 9,000 men had died alongside a large portion of the elephants, however this number was before long recharged after 14,000 northern Gaul rebels joined Hannibal’s armed force. This gathering of 60,000 men demonstrated better than the Roman powers, and after at any rate three recorded significant triumphs, the Roman senate was exasperated. A multitude of 80,000 Roman officers was sent to stop Hannibal’s armed force of now 50,000 for the last time. In July of 216 B.C., the Romans connected with the Carthaginians in â€Å"the neighborhood of Cannae on the Italian east coast† (Lendering, 2). Extraordinarily dwarfed, Hannibal understood that he would need to win by methodology, and that is actually what he did. As the two lines met, Hannibal’s mounted force picked up the flanks and, climbing the sides, assaulted the back of the Roman line.

Forget that

Forget that On Tuesday night, Diana 08 baked a cake. Since she borrowed a bunch of my kitchen stuff (bowls and spoons and so on), she promised to save me a piece. Now, whenever you print something to one of the campus printers (unless you take the action to turn it off), the printer automatically prints whats called a header page before all of your stuff. This page has your MIT username in the top corner, so you can quickly and easily find your printouts in the massive pile of stuff that has been strewn around the printer over the past few days. To make them less wasteful, the header pages always have something useful on them, like graph paper or musical staffs, so that you can actually use them for something, instead of just killing trees. Theyre also useful for clothing, as Ruth demonstrated at the Anything But Clothes Party 2 years ago. Anyway, I had used a header page for scap paper and thrown it into the recycling bin earlier that day, so Diana decided to recycle it again to save my piece of cake for me. People sometimes go by their username as a nickname, and since another Laura moved onto the floor over a year ago, Ive been trying to get everyone to call me by my username (with very limited success) ever since. I found the slice of cake in the kitchen the next morning, and decided to eat it for part of my lunch right before heading off to my 2.008 exam, which was at 12:30. Then I noticed the small note below my username: (text: For maximum effect, consume after an exam.) Well, Diana is an excellent cook, she probably knows best. So I went and took the 2.008 exam, which SUCKED and was way harder than it ever needed to be, and I certainly didnt have time to finish. (Although it didnt seem like anyone else did either, so I guess thats not so bad.) Then I went to music class and had another test, which was just in major scales but still hard because I suck at music. Also, music is dumb. Intervals are just stupid. I dont understand them, so they should go away. After that I had another organizational meeting for MassCPR, this huge event that is ruining my life by not planning itself. So, when I finally returned to the dorm, I walked into my room to find a slice of chocolate cake that literally had my name on it. I poured myself a glass of milk, and enjoyed Dianas delicious baking. Thanks Diana! Okay, so an update. Remember my to-do list from a week ago? Well, some of them were completely impossible, and some of them I said screw it, Ill do it after break. So Im not totally superhuman, but after realizing my limits and readjusting, Id sort of completed everything. Then I sent our technical advisor for MIT-EMS an email, explained to him what he needed to do to complete the event registration form Id dropped off for him at MIT Medical earlier today, thanked him for being my hero and taking care of this so I could get away from this place without stressing out about whether the CAC would spontaneously call me up the day before to cancel the event that has ruined my life because the paperwork wasnt filed on time, and took out a big black marker to cross off the last item on the list. So now all I have to say is: Forget this place, Im going to Paris. Oh, and Rome. HA!

How to Make the Ultimate Colored Smoke Bomb

The classic smoke bomb is a great project for the home or lab, producing lots of safe smoke, with purple flames. If you get dye and consider the shape of your creation, you can make a smoke bomb that billows clouds of brightly-colored smoke. Adult supervision is required. Colored Smoke Bomb Materials 60 g (3 tablespoons) potassium nitrate (sold as saltpeter in garden supply shops)40 g (2 tablespoons) sugar1 teaspoon baking soda60 g (3 tablespoons) powdered organic dye (such as synthetic indigo or an aniline-based dye, found in some craft hobby shops; not common water-based dye)Cardboard tube (best is an iced push-pop tube (eat the treat first), or you could use a toilet paper roll or section of paper towel tube, or even a rolled/taped paper tube)Duct tapePen or pencilFirework fuse (hardware, rocketry, construction, or hobby shops, or scavenge it from a firework)Cotton ballsSaucepan Make the Colored Smoke Bomb Mixture Mix 60 g potassium nitrate with 40 g sugar in a saucepan over low heat. Its a 3:2 ratio, so if you dont have grams, use three large spoonfuls of potassium nitrate and two large spoonfuls of sugar (3 tablespoons and 2 tablespoons, if you feel the need to be precise).The sugar will carmelize and brown. Stir the mixture continuously until it resembles smooth peanut butter.Remove the mixture from heat.Stir in a spoonful of baking soda (a rounded teaspoon is fine). The baking soda is added to slow down the combustion when the smoke bomb is ignited.Add three large spoonfuls (3 tablespoons) of powdered organic dye. Blue dye and orange dye are said to produce better results than the other colors. Stir to mix well.Construct the smoke bomb while the mixture is still hot and pliable. Assemble the Smoke Bomb Fill a cardboard tube with the warm smoke bomb mixture.Push a pen or pencil down into the center of the mix (doesnt have to be all the way to the bottom but should be enough that the pen stands in the mixture). You could use a different shape, but the cylinder works really well.Let the mixture harden (about an hour).Remove the pen.Insert a firework fuse. Push pieces of cotton balls into the hole to tamp the fuse securely inside the smoke bomb. Be sure there is fuse left outside of the tube so that you will be able to light your smoke bomb.Wrap the smoke bomb with duct tape. Cover the top and bottom of the tube, too, but leave the hole area with the cotton and fuse uncovered.Go outside and light your smoke bomb! Tips for Success The key to producing vibrant colored smoke is using an appropriate dye. The color is produced by vaporizing a dye from the heat of the smoke bomb, not from burning a pigment, which always produces normal smoke.Getting a good display also depends on the geometry of the smoke bomb. When the dye is vaporized, the pressure from combustion forces it out to produce the smoke. There needs to be enough pressure inside the smoke bomb to push the smoke out, but not too much pressure or else it will burst. This is why cardboard and tape are used. You can control the opening for the smoke. The materials are strong enough to contain a certain level of force  but will rupture rather than explode if the pressure is too great. Disclaimer: Please be advised that the content provided by our website is for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY. Fireworks and the chemicals contained within them are dangerous and should always be handled with care and used with common sense. By using this website you acknowledge that ThoughtCo., its parent About, Inc. (a/k/a Dotdash), and IAC/InterActive Corp. shall have no liability for any damages, injuries, or other legal matters caused by your use of fireworks or the knowledge or application of the information on this website. The providers of this content specifically do not condone using fireworks for disruptive, unsafe, illegal, or destructive purposes. You are responsible for following all applicable laws before using or applying the information provided on this website.

Case Study Guidelines Motivation and Leadership Essay

Toying with Success: The McFarlane Toy Company Todd McFarlane, president and CEO of the McFarlane Companies, is an entrepreneur who understands the importance of product development. Comics, sports, toys, and rock-and-roll have all benefited from his creativity. When McFarlane’s dream to play major league baseball didn’t happen, he fell back on another interest he developed as a teenager—drawing superheroes. He faced the same question faced by all entrepreneurs: Could he make money pursuing his dream? He sent his sketches to prospective employers, and after 300 rejection letters McFarlane got a job freelancing for Marvel Comics. Working many hours for low pay, he made a name for himself and by 1990 was the highest-paid comic book artist†¦show more content†¦Finally, the global influence on business impacts all the other environments. Knowing he can’t control the global environment, McFarlane focuses on managing what he can control. Todd McFarlane’s purchase of Mark McGwire’s 70th home run ball for $3 million illustrates his willingness to take a risk and focus on what he controls. While many thought he was crazy, McFarlane saw an opportunity. He combined the ball with several others hit by McGwire and Sammy Sosa to create the McFarlane Collection, which was displayed in every major league stadium and garnered enormous publicity. A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Lou Gehrig Foundation. Most significant, McFarlane began a relationship with professional sports that led to his obtaining the exclusive rights to nearly every professional sports team toy license. Questions for Discussion 1. What personality traits do entrepreneurs like Todd McFarlane possess that distinguish them from other individuals? Individuals like Todd McFarlane possess traits like willingness to take a risk and focus on what he controls, entrepreneurship, and effective leadership skills. These skills long with his creative decisions from being a comic book creator, and many other things he has created, helped him gain the success he possesses because he had to will to take risks. 2. How have global competition and technology advances changed business conditionsShow MoreRelatedKey Issues : Who Gets The Project Essay1140 Words   |  5 PagesKey Issues: The presented case, A Manager’s Dilemma: Who Gets the Project, elucidates the importance of combating unfavorable organizational discourse/behaviors, and how it resides heavily with the leadership of managers. In regards to the case Dave Peterson was given temporary responsibility of the CMT unit, and with his newly appointed position, Peterson must decide a project lead for a CD-ROM self-study course. As Peterson has a personal relationship with both Seamus and Olson, the decision processRead MoreLeadership Coaching And Feedback Oriented Performance Management System885 Words   |  4 Pagessystem and what system will best work the implement. Effective leadership cares about their employees and want to train and develop them, so they grow and find meaning and purpose in their work. To help coachees to become more effective leaders, leadership coaches need to have specialist knowledge, coaching experience and right credentials (Kinsler): Specialist Knowledge Leadership coaches should have the understanding of leadership theory, models and best practice. They also need to understandRead MoreSynopsis Of The Path Goal Theory1233 Words   |  5 Pagesperformance of the follower by presenting rewards, clearing the path to objectives, and removing obstacles. 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James Lewis (2003) says leadership is not a position; it’s the ability to gain commitment from people. According to Professor Warren G. Bennis, â€Å"Leaders are people who do the right thing; managers are people who do things right†Read MoreEA Brief 7001V1 v01 1 1305 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Unit 7001V1 - Personal leadership development as a strategic manager Introduction This unit is about understanding the strategic skills required to enable an organisation to achieve its ambitions. It requires you to demonstrate that you are able to identify and manage organisational skills requirements and personal leadership development and evaluate the effectiveness of the results. The unit is also about understanding how to create a staff welfare environment aligned to organisationalRead MoreSituational Approach Theory Is A Leadership Model814 Words   |  4 PagesSituational Approach Theory is a leadership model that was developed by Hersey and Blanchard in 1969 based on Reddin’s (1967) management model (Northouse, 2015). The model focuses on various leadership styles based upon the situation at that time. Leadership is viewed as being composed of directive and supportive dimensions that is applied according to the situation (Northouse, 2015). The leadership styles include: Directing (high directive-low supportive), Coaching (high directive-high supp ortive)Read MoreWhat Key Aspects Set Apart Successful Companies?1275 Words   |  6 Pagesindividual aspects of leadership. 3. Laurence, Janice H. â€Å"Military Leadership and the Complexity of Combat and Culture†. Military Psychology. 23:489–501 (2001). Copyright  © Taylor Francis Group, LLC. 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Mathematical Interpretations of Keynes’s General Theory Free Essays

Introduction Many changes had occurred in the last century in every science. Economics was not the exception and a transformation into the theoretical approach took place in the 30s. In 1936 Keynes published â€Å"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money†. We will write a custom essay sample on Mathematical Interpretations of Keynes’s General Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now Its main ideas set the foundations of macroeconomics and had influenced economics since. Unfortunately, Keynes had (and has) a bad reputation as a writer, because of this there has been constant analysis and interpretations of what he meant. Economists affirmed that Keynes’s innovating work, as any new approach, had some â€Å"inconsistencies†. Further, the book had small use of mathematics and, thus, had small proof of what it stated. Therefore, these ideas need interpretation and testing into the â€Å"real world†. Keynes Main Ideas Kriesler and Nevile (2000) define the book’s main points as follows:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"†¦in a capitalist economy employment, and hence unemployment, is determined by effective demand [†¦] decisions about production and investment are made on the basis of expectations†, and â€Å"monetary variables influence real variables such as output and employment and real variables, in turn, influence monetary ones.† One of the most daunting tasks was to set up a mathematical foundation of the cited Keynes’s works. The most important economists who performed this job were, in a â€Å"crossed fertilization process† as Heller (2000) points it, Roy Harrod, James Meade and mainly John Hicks. In fact, in 1937 Hicks published an influential article, â€Å"Mr. Keynes and the Classics: A suggested interpretation† that rapidly became the standard of Keynesian economics theory. Mathematical Foundations The Keynes’s ideas stated in the paragraphs above turned â€Å"into simple mathematical models of the macro-economy; [and] the most long-lived and flexible, the â€Å"IS-LM model†, came from John R. Hicks† (Morgan 2001). Despite that, some authors suggest that Harrod and Meade had inspired the IS-LM model proposed by Hicks (Young, qt. in Heller, 2002)[1]. Others suggest that Champernowne and Reddaway also had some contribution into the model’s formalization (Barens 1998, qt in Heller, 2002) Besides the multiple interpretations of Keynes’s work, Hicks’ one remains as one of the most important. As pointed by Heller (2000), the models proposed as explanations had similar expressions which are systems of simultaneous equations. And the mathematical formulation’s success of Keynes’s General Theory is because of the â€Å"mathematical elegance† and the exact nature of systems of simultaneous equations, which many consider alike; and particularly to Hicks who was the only one in representing the theory through diagrams. (Heller, 2002) As pointed, Harrod was another economist who performed a mathematical foundation for Keynes’s work. According to him, Keynes system corrects the traditional theory; allowing the Income level to be not given, the price level does not depend on the money, and money demand is divided in two. Due to all of this Harrod states that Keynes system is better than the traditional one. Keynes had a very positive view of Harrod’s development of his own work, which Harrods presented in the same conference where Hicks did. Hence, Keynes thought that Harrod works interpreted correctly his own ideas. But these authors’ success in interpreting Keynes’s ideas is not free of detractors. Kriesler and Nevile (2000) made a clear stand of this: economists reject the â€Å"IS-LM framework as being neither a valid simplification of the arguments in the General Theory nor a reliable model for analyzing macroeconomic issues.† Economists think the IS-LM model ignores expectations and it is not useful to analyze a particular economy beside the static equilibrium[2]. They also affirm that Hicks took Keynesian macroeconomics to another direction from the one intended by the work’s author.   The same authors assert that Keynes’s own vision on Hicks model â€Å"did have the faults that post Keynesians typically ascribe to IS-LM.†[3] Conclusion Keynes’s work and the posterior mathematical development gave, to governments and to economists, answers that can be easily explained and understood by everyone only using analytical tools as diagrams or simple mathematics. What is more, those ideas were beyond the economic â€Å"common sense† of the time: governments can spend during depressions.  Affirming if these formalizations of the model are what Keynes’s work pointed might be intimidating. Regardless of this and the different views, Hicks simplification and formalization of the model is useful, and catches the spirit of the work. As any first interpretation improvements were (and still are) made but the first task was accomplished. References Heller, Claudia, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money According to Brian Reddaway Economia em Revista, Vol. 10, pp. 15-32, 2002 Heller, Claudia, The ‘General Theory’ Synthesis According to Roy Harrod in ‘Mr. Keynes and Traditional Theory’, Revista de Economia (Curitiba), Vol. 23, pp. 27-49, 2000 Keynes, John Maynard, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (New York: Prometheus Books, 1997). Morgan, Mary, The formation of â€Å"Modern† Economics: Engineering and Ideology, Department of Economic History, London School of Economics, May 2001, Available at ;http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/home.aspx; [1] Young proposed that to call it the â€Å"IS-LM Harrod-Meade† model. [2] It is important to make clear that many have pointed rational expectations as one of the inconsistencies in Keynes’s work. [3] Post Keynesian economists main critic to the IS-LM model is its static equilibrium nature, thus has no means to deal economy’s path of adjustment. How to cite Mathematical Interpretations of Keynes’s General Theory, Essay examples

Chemical Bonding Essay Example

Chemical Bonding Paper Chemical compounds are formed by the joining of two or more atoms. A stable compound occurs when the total energy of the combination has lower energy than the separated atoms. The bound state implies a net attractive force between the atoms a chemical bond. The two extreme cases of chemical bonds are: Covalent bond: bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms. Ionic bond: bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.Other types of bonds include metallic bonds and hydrogen bonding. The attractive forces between molecules in a liquid can be characterized as van der Waals bonds. What is an Ionic Bond? An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds are formed due to the attraction between an atom that has lost one or more electron (known as a cation) and an atom that has gained one or more electrons (known as an anion). Usually, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a non-metal atom.It is important to recognize that pure ionic bonding in which one atom steals an electron from another cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the term ionic bond is given to a bond in which the ionic character is greater than the covalent character that is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bond to be more polar (ionic) than other forms of covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.Nevertheless, ionic bonding is considered to be a form of no covalent bonding. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not as a solid. They generally have a high melting point and tend to be soluble in water. Ionic  Bonding   is observed because metals have few electrons in its outer-most orbital. By losing those electrons, these metals can achieve noble-gas configuration and satisfy the octet rule. Similarly, nonmetals that have close to 8 electrons in its valence shell tend to readily accept electrons to achieve its noble gas configuration.In  ionic  bonding, more than 1 electron can be donated or received to satisfy the octet rule. The charge on the anion and cation corresponds to the number of electrons donated or recieved. In  ionic  bonds, the net charge of the compound must be zero. This sodium molecule donates the lone electron in its valence orbital in order to achieve octet configuration. This creates a positively charged cation due to the loss of electron. This Chlorine molecule receives one electron to achieve its octet configuration. This creates a negatively charged anion due to the addition of one electron.The predicted overall energy of the  ionic  bonding process, which inclu des the ionization energy of the metal and electron affinity of the non-metal, is usually positive, indicating that the reaction is endothermic and unfavorable. However,  this reaction is highly favorable because of their electrostatic attraction. At the most ideal inter-atomic distance, attraction between these particles releases enough energy to facilitate the reaction. Most  ionic  compounds tend to dissociate in polar solvents because they are  often polar. This phenomenon is due to the opposite charges on each ions.Examples: In this example, the Sodium  molecule is donating its 1 valence electron to the Chlorine molecule. This creates a Sodium cation and a Chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. In this example, the Magnesium molecule is donating both of its valence electrons to Chlorine molecules. Each Chlorine molecule can only accept 1 electron before it can achieve  its noble gas configuration; therefore, 2 molecules of Chlorine is requi red to accept the 2 electrons donated by the Magnesium. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. StructureIonic compounds in the solid state form lattice structures. The two principal factors in determining the form of the lattice are the relative charges of the ions and their relative sizes. Some structures are adopted by a number of compounds; for example, the structure of the rock salt sodium chloride is also adopted by many alkali halides, and binary oxides such as MgO. Bond Strength For a solid crystalline ionic compound the enthalpy change in forming the solid from gaseous ions is termed the lattice energy. The experimental value for the lattice energy can be determined using the Born-Haber cycle.It can also be calculated using the Born-Lande equation as the sum of the electrostatic potential energy, calculated by summing interactions between cations and anions, and a short range repulsive potential energy term. The electrostatic potential can be expressed in terms of the inter-ionic separation and a constant (Madelung constant) that takes account of the geometry of the crystal. The Born-Lande equation gives a reasonable fit to the lattice energy of e. g. sodium chloride where the calculated value is ? 756 kJ/mol which compares to ? 87 kJ/mol using the Born-Haber cycle. Polarization Effects Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical; however, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans rules. This polarization of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two nuclei, i. e. , to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually only important when positive ions with charges of 3+ (e. . , Al3+) are involved. However, 2+ ions (Be2+) or even 1+ (Li+) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e. g. , LiI is ionic but has some covalent bonding pre sent). Note that this is not the ionic polarization effect which refers to displacement of ions in the lattice due to the application of an electric field. Comparison with covalent bonds In an ionic bond, the atoms are bound by attraction of opposite ions, whereas, in a covalent bond, atoms are bound by sharing electrons to attain stable electron configurations.In covalent bonding, the molecular geometry around each atom is determined by Valence shell electron pair repulsion VSEPR rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum packing rules. Purely ionic bonds cannot exist, as the proximity of the entities involved in the bond allows some degree of sharing electron density between them. Therefore, all ionic bonds have some covalent character. Thus, an ionic bond is considered a bond where the ionic character is greater than the covalent character. The larger the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms involved in the bond, the more ionic (polar) the b ond is.Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. For example, Na–Cl and Mg–O bonds have a few percent covalency, while Si–O bonds are usually ~50% ionic and ~50% covalent. Electrical Conductivity Ionic compounds, if molten or dissolved, can conduct electricity because the ions in these conditions are free to move and carry electrons between the anode and the cathode. In the solid form, however, they cannot conduct because the electrons are held together too tightly for them to move. However, some ionic compounds can conduct electricity when solid.This is due to migration of the ions themselves under the influence of an electric field. These compounds are known as fast ion conductors. What is a Covalent Bond? Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding occurs between two of the same element or elements close to each other in the periodic table. This bonding occurs primarily be tween non-metals; however, it can also be observed between non-metals and metals as well. When molecules have similar electronegativity, same affinity for electrons, covalent bonds are most likely to occur.Since both atoms have the same affinity for electrons and neither is willing to donate them, they share electrons in order to achieve octet configuration and become more stable. In addition, the ionization energy of the atom is too large and the electron affinity of the atom is too small for  ionic bonding to occur. For example: Carbon doesn’t form  ionic  bonds since it has 4 valence electrons, half of an octet. In order to form  ionic bonds, Carbon molecules must either gain or lose 4 electrons. This is highly unfavourable; therefore, Carbon molecules share their 4 valence electrons through single, double, and triple onds so that each atom can achieve noble gas configurations. Covalent bonds can include interactions of the sigma and pi orbitals; therefore covalent bonds lead to formation of single, double, triple, and quadruple bonds. Example: In this example, a Phosphorous molecule is sharing its 3 unpaired electrons with 3 Chlorine atoms. In the end product, all four of these molecules have 8 valence electrons  and satisfy the octet rule. A covalent bond is the chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding. [1] For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration. Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interactions, including ? -bonding, ? -bonding, metal-to-metal bonding, agnostic interactions, and three-centre two-electron bonds. [2][3] The term covalent bond dates from 1939. [4] The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc. thus a co-valent bond, in essence, means that the atoms share valence, such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. [5] Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativity’s. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding which entails sharing of electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized. Physical properties of covalent compounds (polar and non-polar) Physical properties| Covalent compounds|States (at room temperature)| Solid, liquid, gas| Electrical conductivity| Usually none| Boiling point and Melting point| Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds| Solubility in water| Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds| Thermal conductivity| Usually low| Subdivision of covalent bonds There are three types of covalent substances: individual molecules, molecular st ructures, and macromolecular structures. Individual molecules have strong bonds that hold the atoms together, but there are negligible forces of attraction between molecules.Such covalent substances are gases. For example, HCl, SO2, CO2, and CH4. In molecular structures, there are weak forces of attraction. Such covalent substances are low-boiling-temperature liquids (such as ethanol), and low-melting-temperature solids (such as iodine and solid CO2). Macromolecular structures have large numbers of atoms linked in chains or sheets (such as graphite), or in 3-dimensional structures (such as diamond and quartz). These substances have high melting and boiling points, are frequently brittle, and tend to have high electrical resistivity.Elements that have high electronegativity, and the ability to form three or four electron pair bonds, often form such large macromolecular structures. Only when two atoms of the same element form a covalent bond are the shared electrons actually shared eq ually between the atoms. When atoms of different elements share electrons through covalent bonding, the electron will be drawn more toward the atom with the higher electronegativity resulting in a polar covalent bond. When compared to ionic compounds, covalent compounds usually have a lower melting and boiling point, and have less of a tendency to dissolve in water.Covalent compounds can be in a gas, liquid, or solid state and do not conduct electricity or heat well. The types of covalent bonds can be distinguished by looking at the Lewis dot structure of the molecule. For each molecule, there are different names for pairs of electrons, depending if it is shared or not. A pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms is called a bond pair. A pair of electrons that is not shared between two atoms is called a lone pair. Octet Rule The Octet Rule requires all atoms in a molecule to have 8 valence electronseither by sharing, losing or gaining electronsto become stable.For Covalent bonds, atoms tend to share their electrons with each other to satisfy the Octet Rule. It requires 8 electrons because that is the amount of electrons needed to fill a s- and p- orbital (electron configuration); also known as a noble gas configuration. Each atom wants to become as stable as the noble gases that have their outer valence shell filled because noble gases have a charge of 0. Although it is important to remember the magic number, 8, note that there are many Octet rule exceptions. Example: The bonding in  carbon dioxide  (CO2): all atoms are surrounded by 8 electrons, fulfilling the  octet rule.Single Bond A single bond is when two electronsone pair of electronsare shared between two atoms. It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms. Although this form of bond is weaker and has a smaller density than a double bond and a triple bond, it is the most stable because it has a lower level of reactivity meaning less vulnerability in losing electrons to atoms that want to steal electrons. Double Bond A Double bond is when two atoms share two pairs of electrons with each other. It is depicted by two horizontal lines between two atoms in a molecule.This type of bond is much stronger than a single bond, but less stable; this is due to its greater amount of reactivity compared to a single bond. Triple Bond A Triple bond is when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule. It is the least stable out of the three general types of covalent bonds. It is very vulnerable to electron thieves! Polar covalent bond A Polar Covalent Bond is created when the shared electrons between atoms are not equally shared. This occurs when one atom has a higher electronegativity than the atom it is sharing with.The atom with the higher electronegativity will have a stronger pull for electrons (Similar to a Tug-O-War game, whoever is stronger usually wins). As a result, the shared electrons will be closer to the atom with the higher electronegat ivity, making it unequally shared. A polar covalent bond will result in the molecule having a slightly positive side (the side containing the atom with a lower electronegativity) and a slightly negative side (containing the atom with the higher electronegativity) because the shared electrons will be displaced toward the atom with the higher electronegativity.As a result of polar covalent bonds, the covalent compound that forms will have an electrostatic potential. This potential will make the resulting molecule slightly polar, allowing it to form weak bonds with other polar molecules. One example of molecules forming weak bonds with each other as a result of an unbalanced electrostatic potential is hydrogen bonding, where a hydrogen atom will interact with an electronegative hydrogen, fluorine, or oxygen atom from another molecule or chemical group.Non polar covalent bond A Nonpolar Covalent Bond is created when atoms share their electrons equally. This usually occurs when two atoms have similar or the same electron affinity. The closer the values of their electron affinity, the stronger the attraction. This occurs in gas molecules; also known as diatomic elements. Nonpolar covalent bonds have a similar concept as polar covalent bonds; the atom with the higher electronegativity will draw away the electron from the weaker one.Since this statement is trueif we apply this to our diatomic moleculesall the atoms will have the same electronegativity since they are the same kind of element; thus, the electronegativity will cancel each other out and will have a charge of 0(A. K. A. Nonpolar covalent bond). Bonding in Organic Chemistry Ionic and Covalent bonds are the two extremes of bonding. Polar covalent is the intermediate type of bonding between the two extremes. Some ionic bonds contain covalent characteristics and some covalent bonds are partially ionic. For example, most Carbon-based compounds are covalently bonded but can also be partially ionic.Polarity is a measure of the separation of charge in a compound. A compounds polarity is dependent on the symmetry of the compound as well as differences in electronegativity between atoms. Polarity occurs when the electron pushing elements, left side of the periodic table, exchanges electrons with the electron pulling elements, right side of the period table. This creates a spectrum of polarity, with ionic(polar) at one extreme, covalent(nonpolar) at another, and polar covalent in the middle. Both of these bonds are important in Organic Chemistry.Ionic bonds are important because they allow the synthesis of specific organic compounds. Scientists can manipulate ionic properties and these interactions in order to form products they desire. Covalent bonds are especially important since most carbon molecules interact primarily through covalent bonding. Covalent bonding allows molecules to share electrons with other molecules, creating long chains of compounds and allowing more complexity in life. AS SIGNMENT IN CHEM LEC 1 * Ionic bond * Covalent bond Submitted to: Dr. Juliet Salgados Submitted by: Russhel Aira Dolauta